SOME KEY POINTSHoof health is very important to animal healthy, welfare, and productivity.The need for hoof trimming varies and is affected by many factors.Overzealous hoof trimming is discouraged.Numerous diseases can infect the hooves of sheep and lambs.Foot rot is a contagious disease cause by the synergistic activity of two bacteria.Foot rot is one of the worst diseases in the US sheep industry.Hoof care is an important aspect of sheep production and management. Hoof diseases can affect the health and welfare of sheep and have a negative effect on productivity. Hooves should be regularly checked for disease and excess growth. Animals which have excessive hoof growth, recurrent hoof problems and/or fail to respond to treatments should be culled (removed from the flock).Hoof TrimmingHoof growth -- and thus, the need for hoof trimming -- is affected by many factors, including breed and genetics, soil moisture and characteristics, management and nutrition. Sheep grazed on rocky, dry soil may not require the extent of hoof care as sheep that are maintained on soil that is free of rocks and higher in moisture content. Sheep in high rainfall areas usually need to have their hooves inspected more regularly than those on dry ground. Housed sheep usually require more hoof trimming than pastured animals. Sheep on a higher plane of nutrition usually require more frequent hoof trimming.Proper footrot or foot paring shears are essential to doing the job properly. The ordinary, manual shears are not expensive and make the task so much easier. Air compressor driven shears are an option for people with large numbers of sheep. A sharp paring knife is needed to remove pockets and do a more thorough job of hoof trimming, especially when disease organisms are present.Foot trimming can be back-breaking work if there are a lot of hooves to trim. There are various types of sheep handling equipment that can restrain the sheep for easier access and trimming. A tilt or turn table will hold the sheep upright or on its side. There are manual and automatic (electric) tilt tables available. An elevated platform with a head gate can also restrain a sheep for hoof trimming, as well as other management tasks. A sheep or deck "chair" is a less expensive way to restrain a sheep for hoof trimming. When specialized equipment is not available, the sheep is usually tipped onto its rump for hoof trimming.To trim feet, securely hold the leg of the sheep. Inspect the hoof and remove any mud, manure, or small stones between the walls of the hoof. A rotten smell could be indicative of foot rot or an abscess. Clean all the junk and crud out of the hoof using a knife or the point of the shears. After cleaning the hoof, begin trimming around the perimeter of the hoof.Avoid cutting off large chunks of hoof. Stop at the first sign of pinkness. A pink color means you are getting close to the foot blood supply. The hoof should be trimmed from the heel to the toe to remove excess growth of the "horny" portion of the hoof. To learn what a properly trimmed hoof look like, study the feet of a newborn lamb. Its hooves are flat on the bottom and have a boxy look.When trimming hooves, avoid stressful times such as hot weather or late gestation. It is a good idea to combine hoof trimming with other management tasks, such as shearing or vaccinating. It will be easier to trim hooves that are soft from heavy dew or rain.Diseases Affecting the HoofLameness is one of the most common problems with sheep and should never be ignored. It can be a sign of several foot diseases – some of which are very serious – as well as some other problems.BluetongueFoot lesions occur in some animals with bluetongue, a non-contagious, viral disease spread by biting insects (midges). A red to brown band around the coronet is an important diagnostic sign of bluetongue. Bluetongue is a reportable disease. It causes sickness and abortions.Foot AbscessFoot abscesses are characterized by the swelling of the soft tissues immediately above the hoof and in advanced cases, draining abscesses in this area and between the toes. Foot abscesses are caused by bacterial infection of damaged foot tissue. The front feet are most commonly affected. Usually only one hoof is infected. Treatment is usually with anti-bacterial compounds (Rx).Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)Foot and mouth disease is a highly contagious viral disease that affects pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, and deer. It is endemic in many parts of the world. Clinical signs of the disease in infected animals include blisters or ulcerations on the mouth, snout, tongue, gums, teats, or around the top of the feet. The signs of FMD in sheep and goats are usually much less obvious than in cattle or pigs.The United States has eradicated nine outbreaks of FMD, the last of which occurred in 1929. Since then, no cases have ever been reported in the United States. Canada has been free of foot-and-mouth disease since 1929. The United Kingdom experienced a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak in 2001. Canada, Mexico, and the majority of the Caribbean are recognized as free of foot and mouth diseases (without vaccination).Foot RotFootrot is one of the most devastating diseases in the US sheep industry and elsewhere. While footrot does not cause death, it is an animal welfare issue that may cause production losses and cause the premature culling of animals. Treatment costs, especially labor, can also be substantial. Footrot is a common reason for exiting the sheep business.Footrot is caused by a synergistic action of two anaerobic bacteria: Fusobacterium necrophorum and Bacterioides nodusus. While F. Necrophorum is found in soil and manure and is present wherever there are sheep, goats, and cattle, the B. Nodusus organism usually "walks" onto the farm in the hooves of infected animals. There are over 20 strains of the B. Nodusus bacteria, varying in their infectivity and severity.Warmth, mud, and poor sanitation are the environmental conditions that favor the spread of footrot, once the bacteria has been introduced to the farm. Warm, moist conditions create the anaerobic (lack of oxygen) conditions necessary for the spread of the disease. However, the B. Nodusus organism will only live in soil for 14 to 21 days.The bacteria that causes foot rot, B. nodosus, is spread from infected sheep to the ground, manure, bedding, etc., where it is then picked up by noninfected sheep. Footrot is introduced by purchase of an infected animal or by simply using facilities or trucks that have been contaminated by infected sheep.Spread occurs best when temperatures are from 40 to 70°F and the environment is wet. Since the organism does not survive long in the environment (less then two weeks), carriers in the flock will continue to reinfect the flock unless they are either culled or the organism is eliminated by proper treatment.Treatment of foot rot should be approached from a flock standpoint. Since the foot rot organism is anaerobic, the introduction of oxygen to its environment will help in eradicating it. Thus, it is important to keep sheep's hooves properly trimmed; although care must be taken not to cause bleeding. Elimination of overgrown hoof tissue will result in less mud and manure packing, which aids in environmental conditions conducive to footrot development. After foot trimming, the use of regular soaking in a footbath of a zinc sulfate solution (10% w/v) can greatly help in eradicating the disease.In the UK, aggressive hoof trimming is not recommended, as it is believed it may help to spread of the disease. Instead, it is recommended that antibiotic injections and antibiotic sprays be used to control footrot and similar hoof diseases. European researchers have found success treating footrot with Gamithromycin (Zactran®), a macrolide antibiotic that is licensed for cattle in the treatment and control of bovine respiratory disease. Use of Zactran® in the US to treat foot rot is an extra label use that requires a veterinary prescription.Vaccination of flocks with a history of footrot can help in prevention and treatment of current cases. However, just because a sheep is vaccinated for footrot does not mean it is immune to infection. The vaccine does not cover all the strains of footrot. The vaccine is not always readily available. Producers with clean flocks can control footrot more economically by prevention rather than vaccination.Severely infected sheep that do not respond to treatment should be culled. There can be a genetic susceptibility to footrot; some sheep are more susceptible to footrot than others. Also, there can be breed differences in susceptibility to footrot.British and European breeds seem to be less susceptible to footrot. Thus, sheep that have resistance to footrot should be propagated, while, susceptible animals should be culled. Keeping records can help in identification of these types. Though a common belief, there is no scientific proof that black-pigmented hooves are less prone to hoof disease than light-colored hooves. It is much easier to prevent foot rot than to eradicate it.Several management practices help to minimize the chances that foot rot will establish itself in a flock. You should never buy sheep infected with foot rot. Avoid buying apparently clean sheep from an infected flock. Avoid buying sheep from sale barns where clean and infected sheep are penned together.You should always assume that all new additions to your flock are infected with foot rot. Always isolate new animals for at least 30 days. Trim feet immediately upon arrival. Treat feet of new sheep following trimming. Re-inspect feet during the quarantine period.Foot Scald (interdigital dermatitis)Foot scald is an infection of only F. necrophorum and is not contagious. Foot scald causes lameness, frequently on the front feet, and lesions are found between the hooves. The tissue between the toes of a sheep with foot scald are generally blanched and white, or red and swollen. Foot scald is much easier to treat than foot rot. Many times, placing sheep on drier footing and out of mud will alleviate the problems of the disease.Individual sheep or hooves can be treated topically with copper sulfate (Kopertox) or zinc sulfate. The simplest and most effective treatment is use of a footbath containing 10% zinc sulfate solution (8 pounds zinc sulfate to 10 gallons water). The frequency and severity of foot scald infection will decline as drier weather returns.Laminitis (founder)Lameness related to laminitis is caused by inadequate blood flow in the hoof caused by digestive problems resulting from the excessive intake of grain (grain overload, acidosis). Animals often die before the feet become involved. Recovered animals may exhibit unusual foot growth and/or permanent lameness.Soremouth (contagious ecthyma)Lameness caused by soremouth is the result of blisters appearing on the skin near the top of the hoof wall. Simultaneous blisters appear on the mouth and other areas of the sheep's body. The infection is more common around the mouth than on the legs or feet. Lesions can be treated with an ointment containing a broad spectrum antibiotic. Soremouth can be prevented with vaccination or avoided with good biosecurity.

SOME KEY POINTSWooled sheep require shearing at least once per year; it is a welfare need.There are advantages to shearing ewes prior to lambing.Freshly shorn sheep have a higher critical temperature and may require accommodation. Shearing is a specialized skill and should only be done by properly trained individuals.Crutching is a modification of shearing; only the backend of the sheep is sheared, usually for hygienic reasons. Continuous growthMost breeds of sheep grow wool continuously, so it is important to shear them at least once per year. In 2025, the average sheep in the US produced 6.8 lbs. of grease wool (USDA sheep inventory report). Fleece weights vary by breed, genetics, and shearing interval. Shearing is usually done in the spring, so sheep do not get overheated in the summer.Prior to lambingPreferably, sheep are sheared prior to lambing. There are many advantages to shearing sheep prior to lambing. Sheared sheep take up less room in the barn and around feeders. It is easier for lambs to nurse sheared ewes. The fleeces will be cleaner.However, sheep that are shorn in the winter require good nutrition and shelter, as a freshly shorn sheep has a higher critical temperature than a sheep with a fleece. Some producers shear their sheep twice per year.ShearingAnyone can attempt to shear a sheep, but not everyone will do a good job. Shearing is a specialized skill. It is hard work. Shearing requires skill so that sheep are shorn efficiently without cuts or injuries to the sheep and shearer. If shearing is not carried out skillfully, it is stressful to the sheep. It is best to hire a professional shearer to shear sheep.Small sheep farms often have a difficult time finding someone to shear their sheep. Small farms can save money by bringing sheep to a central location for shearing. Producers can learn to shear by attending shearing schools. Many states hold annual sheep shearing schools.Large flocks of sheep are usually sheared by shearing crews who bring a trailer that accommodates shearing, as well as fleece handling and packing.Before electric shears (up until about the 1880's), sheep were sheared with hand shears or blades. In some parts of the world where electricity is limited or not available, sheep are still blade sheared. Compared to machine-shorn sheep, blade shorn sheep will have more wool.The New Zealand method is the most common method of electric shearing. Many shearers of Spanish or Mexican descent use a style of shearing that requires the legs of the sheep to be tied.Electric shearsElectric shears have three basic parts: the handpiece, the comb and the cutters. Commercial sheep shears, having a powerful electric motor attached to the ceiling. Portable electric shears have the motor inside the handle of the handpiece.Expect to pay $250-500 for a good set of electric shears. More teeth on a comb generally mean a cut closer to the skin. Cutters generally have 4 points, triangular protrusions, and attach to the handpiece by way of four "fingers" that press them firmly against the comb.Cutters are the first thing to dull, and you will probably want about 3 cutters for every comb. Changing cutters is quick, and it ensures a sharp tool. Remember, dull tools are dangerous tools. Cutters cost $10-15. When purchasing shearing combs, it is important to buy a type of comb that is best suited to the sheep you will be shearing.Preparing sheep for shearingA sheep shearer should be contacted well in advance of shearing time. Sheep should be penned before shearing. They should be sorted into the following groups: lambs, yearlings, rams and ewes by breed and/or grade. Sheep should be fasted before shearing. This will result in a much cleaner shearing floor.A full stomach also contributes to animal discomfort during shearing. Wet sheep should not be shorn. Sheep should be sheared on a clean, dry surface (e.g. wood, carpet, canvas, or concrete). The shearing area should be swept after each sheep to provide a clean surface for the next.Skirting FleecesAfter shearing, belly wool and tags should be separated from the rest of the fleece. Every sheep producer should learn how to skirt and roll a fleece. To skirt, throw the fleece flesh side down, so the dirty end of the fleece faces up. Remove off-color wool, tags around the breach, very short and matted wool, and other contaminated areas.Then roll the two sides of the fleece in toward the middle and roll the fleece from one end to the other. The flesh side will face out, created a clean, attractive package for the buyer. It is usually not necessary to tie fleeces. Some wool pools will discount fleeces that are tied. If fleeces are tied (for competition), only paper twine should be used.Skirting is especially important for high value wool, wool that will be sold to hand spinners, or for fleeces that will be exhibited.Packaging woolSmall producers can package their fleeces in cardboard boxes or plastic garbage bags. Wool should not be packaged in poly feed sacks or burlap bags. This will contaminate the wool. Large producers should pack their wool in large square bales. The preferred packaging material is clear plastic wool bags.Different grades or classes of wool should be packaged separately. All belly wool, tags, off-color, burry, seedy, chaffy, cotted, stained or dead wool should be handled and bagged separately. Black wool should be kept separate from white wool. Bags of wool should be labeled. Properly sorted and labeled wool will bring more money to the grower. Wool should be stored in a clean, dry place until ready for market.Improving Wool QualityThere many steps producers can take to improve the quality of their wool clip. Since black and colored fibers can seriously undermine the value of a white wool clip, black, colored, or spotted sheep should be sheared last and black wool should be kept separate from white wool. One of the major wool contaminants is polypropylene: hay baling twine, poly tarps, and poly feed sacks. Polypropylene should never be allowed to come into contact with wool.Paint branding can be damaging to wool. If paint brands are used, only approved scourable solutions should be used. Sheep should not be paint branded prior to shearing time. Medium size paint irons should be used and the paint should be applied lightly.Vegetable matter (e.g. seeds, straw, chaff, and burrs) is a primary source of wool contamination. To help prevent this type of contamination, sheep should not be bedded on hay or straw before shearing. Overhead hay feeders should be avoided. Hays which allow sheep to poke their heads through will also result in wool contamination. Poor nutrition can weaken the strength of the wool fiber and result in breaks in the wool fiber.Hair sheep The widespread popularity of hair sheep breeds poses a significant threat to wool quality. Hair is damaging to a wool fleece. The fleeces from hair x wool crosses should be discarded. Hair x wool crosses should be sheared last.If hair sheep and wool sheep are raised together, hair may get into the fleeces of the wool sheep. Wool sheep and hair sheep should not be housed or pastured together when the hair sheep are actively shedding. Ideally, they should never be kept together.CrutchingCrutching is a short, quick modification of shearing. Only the wool in the vulva area and around the udder is removed. If ewes are not sheared before lambing, it is a good idea to crutch them. Crutching offers some of the same advantages as shearing prior to lambing. Crutching is the removal of wool from the crutch of a sheep to keep the area dry and less attractive to blowfly strike.Not All Sheep Require ShearingIt is generally not necessary to shearing hair sheep and some hair x wool crosses. In addition, many of the primitive sheep breeds may also naturally shed their coats.In the 1990s, Australian scientists invented a way of removing the wool from sheep without shearing. They injected sheep with a special hormone, then wrapped them in tight hairnets. Three weeks later, the fleece could be peeled off. The wool harvest technology was called Bioclip™. It was never widely adopted by producers. Researchers are working on a new technology that would not require nets. Australian scientists also developed a robotic method for shearing sheep. Researchers are currently trying to breed sheep with bare britches and crutch areas to make shearing easier and to help prevent fly strike.

SOME KEY POINTSBody condition scoring has many applications and is an essential skill.Drenching is when small amounts of medicine are given to a sheep in its mouth.There are many reasons to give sheep injections and many ways to give them.You mouth a sheep to estimate its age and evaluate the soundness of its mouth and teeth.Tipping is when you put a sheep on its rump. It is a method of restraining. Tube feeding is an essential skill for all shepherds. It save the life of many lambs.There are certain basic skills (or husbandry practices) that all shepherds should master. These include body condition scoring, castrating, catching, collecting blood, drenching, docking, FAMACHA© scoring, hoof trimming, injecting, mouthing, replacing a prolapse, tipping, and tubing. Some skills are discussed in other chapters. Body condition scoringBody condition scoring is one of the shepherd's most valuable management tools. Body condition scoring has many applications, including assessing the health and nutritional status of a sheep, determining a sheep's readiness for breeding, and assessing market readiness of lambs. It is one of the check points in the Five Point Check®, a chute-side, decision-making tool for making deworming decisions. Sheep are usually body condition scored using a scale of 1 to 5, including using half scores. A score of 1 is indicative of a very thin, emaciated sheep, whereas a 5 is a very fat, obese animal. Most sheep fluctuate between 2 and 4, depending upon their stage of production. Diet also has a big influence on body condition score. For obvious reasons, fed-sheep tend to have higher body condition scores than pastured animals. Animals that are at the extreme ends of the body condition scale are considered undesirable.Table: Description of body condition scoresBCSDescription1Very thin, emaciated2Thin, lean3Average, "nice shape"4Fleshy, bloomy, fat5Obese, very fatIt is difficult to determine the body condition score of most sheep simply by looking at them. Wool or hair coats, even pregnancy, can mask body condition. You need to get your hands on the sheep. Body condition score (BCS) is determined by feeling for fat and muscle over the sheep's backbone, ribs, and loin. You do this by placing your thumb on the sheep's backbone and moving your spread fingers across the sheep's ribs. Do the same across the loin.The backbone, ribs, and spinous processes (of the loin) will feel more prominent (pointy) the thinner the sheep is. They will be more difficult to detect as the sheep increases in body condition score. In fact, it is hard to detect the bones in an obese (BCS 5) sheep. Different standards need to be applied to different kinds of sheep, as they fatten differently. Because hair sheep and Finnsheep fatten similarly as goats -- from the inside out -- you don't want them to handle with as much external fat as wooled sheep. If a hair sheep (and Finnsheep) and wooled sheep have the same amount of external fat, the hair sheep will be considerably fatter, due to their higher amount of internal fat.CatchingSometimes, it is necessary to catch an individual sheep. Unless the sheep is a pet -- and has no flight zone -- it is not usually possible to catch it in an open pasture or large pen. The sheep will need to be crowded into a small "catch" pen, the smaller the better. If you have to chase sheep in the pen, it is too large.The easiest way to catch a sheep is to cup your hand around the bony part of its jaw. Put your other hand on its neck. Keep its head up to control it. If a sheep gets its head down, it is difficult to control. If the sheep is further away, you can grab it by its hind leg, just above the hock. For larger sheep, it is better to grab the rear flank, as close to the body as possible. When catching sheep this way, you need to work your hand up to the head as quickly as possible to gain control of the sheep.A shepherd's crook will give you a longer reach. There are two types of crooks that can be used to catch sheep: the traditional neck crook and a leg crook. The neck crook is used to catch the sheep by the neck. After you loop the neck, you need to turn your wrist to keep the sheep from getting away. The leg crook is ideal for pasture situations. You can use it to snag a front or hind leg, depending on which way the sheep is facing. Once caught, you need to work your hand up the crook to secure the sheep. Some crooks have dual ends, so you can catch sheep by their neck or feet. You can also use the crook to block sheep and steer them in the direction you want.You should never catch a sheep by the wool or skin, as this can bruise the muscle and damage the carcass. Collecting bloodThere are numerous reasons to collect blood from a sheep, including genetic (DNA) testing, disease control/eradication, and pregnancy diagnosis. You will save money if you can learn to collect blood yourself. It is a skill that any shepherd can master with a little practice and patience. Most of what you need can be acquired from a veterinarian, animal health lab, or livestock supply company: needles, syringes, blood tubes (vacutainers), and/or blood cards.It is usually necessary to shear the neck of a wooled sheep in order to collect a blood sample. It may or may not be necessary to shear the neck of a hair sheep. However, shearing will make it easier to see the vein and will keep the injection site cleaner. Proper restraint is essential. Blood sampling can be done by one person, simply by straddling the sheep. For beginners, it is helpful to have someone restrain the sheep and position the neck.The animal's head should be held at a thirty-degree angle, opposite to the side where blood will be drawn. The easiest way to locate the vein is to draw an imaginary line from the middle of the animal's eye down the side of its neck. The vein can be located by applying pressure below the halfway point -- the vein should "pop" out.Blood can be drawn using a needle and syringe or vacutainer. Use a 20 gauge by one-inch needle or less. Use gauze to clean the area with alcohol. After inserting the needle into the vein, pull back on the syringe to see if the needle is in the vein. If no blood pulls back into the syringe, the needle is either parallel to the vein or has gone completely through the vein. Slight movements can be used to try to locate the vein.When blood is pulled back into the syringe, the needle is in the vein. Fill the syringe with the desired amount of blood. After you are finished, remove pressure from the vein, pull the needle out, and press gently on the injection sire.DrenchingDrenching is when small amounts of liquid (less than 30 ml) are administered by mouth. It is the preferred method of administering deworming medicine to sheep. Many other medications and supportive therapies can also be delivered via drenching.Sheep are easier to drench if they are in a raceway (chute) or crowded into a small pen. They can be drenched while their head is locked in a head gate. You can also straddle them. The sheep's head should always be kept level, with the jaw parallel to the ground. Tipping the sheep's head may cause the drench to enter its lungs. It is important to use proper equipment when drenching, either a single dose oral syringe with a long metal nozzle or an automatic drench gun with the same type of metal nozzle.Place your hand under the sheep's chin and move its head slightly to the side. Put the nozzle in the gap between the molar and incisor teeth. Get the nozzle over the back of the animal's tongue. If the dewormer is just put in the mouth, it may by-pass the rumen and be less effective. Push the plunger of the gun or syringe. Give the sheep time to swallow. Ensure that it swallows before you release it. Always be gentle to avoid injuries.It is important that proper doses of deworming medicine to given to sheep. Underdosing is one of the contributing factors to drug resistance. Use accurate weights to calibrate doses. Calibrate the equipment for each sheep or for the heaviest animals in the group. Separate into groups if necessary based on weight. Check equipment to make sure the proper dose is being delivered. Be sure to clean your equipment after you are done.Ear taggingEar tagging is the most common method of identifying sheep. Different tags usually require different applicators. Proper technique will maximize tag retention and minimize ear infections. Before inserting a tag, you need to make sure the applicator is working properly. Insert the tag in the applicator. Slowly squeeze the handles together to make sure the male pin is aligned with the female opening.When tagging, the animal's head needs to be secured to prevent jerking and possible tearing of the ear. You can straddle the sheep, someone else can hold it, or you can secure the sheep's head in a head gate. Place the ear between the jaws of the applicator. While gripping the ear, quickly and firmly squeeze the handles together until the male tag is inserted through the ear into the female tag.Tag placement is important. Tags should be inserted halfway between the skull and the tip of the ear. Putting tags too close to the tip of the ear will result in more lost tags, as the tip of the ear is tender and tears easily. Tags placed too close to the skull are more likely to get infected, as the tissue is thicker and there is less air access to the tag.Tags should be inserted in the center of the ear between the veins, avoiding the ridges of cartilage. Two-piece tags should be inserted so that they hang down from the lower ear. One-piece tags should be inserted at the top of the ear. They need to allow for ear growth. If looping tags are too tight, they will tear into the ear as the animal grows. If they are too loose, they may catch on things and tear the ear.Tag infections are not uncommon, especially in humid climates. You can minimize infections by tagging lambs instead of sheep, by not inserting tags during fly season (late spring-summer), and by not placing tags too close to the skull. Ears should be clean and dry; tags should be clean. The applicator should be dipped in a disinfectant solution, preferably between sheep.The most serious infections occur when the ear is wet and dirty. Small tags cause less tissue irritation and allow more air access to the wound. Metal and round (button) ear tags allow less air access and should be avoided, as they are more likely to result in infections. It may help to apply an antibiotic, fly repellent, or disinfectant to the ear tissue or tag. Unused tags should be stored in a clean container. FAMACHA© scoringFAMACHA© scoring is a relatively new skill that is important for shepherds to master, especially if they are raising sheep in areas where the barber pole worm (Haemonchus contortus) is endemic. FAMACHA© scoring is when you evaluate the color of the conjunctiva of the sheep's lower eye lid to determine its level of anemia and the need for deworming. Anemia (blood loss) is the primary symptom of barber pole worm infection. FAMACHA© is not a decision-making tool for non-blood-feeding parasites.The "mantra" of FAMACHA© scoring is COVER-PUSH-PULL-POP. COVER the animal's eye with your thumb, then slightly PUSH down on the eyeball, applying enough pressure so that the eye lashes curl up over your thumb. After you PULL down the lower eyelid, the mucous membranes will POP into view. Care must be taken not to shade the eye. FAMACHA© scoring should be done under natural lighting.FAMACHA© scoring should be done quickly. It is best that you stick with your first impression. If you score the other eye higher, err on the side of caution and go with the higher score. There are no half scores. Animals with FAMACHA© scores of 1 or 2 do not require deworming, unless they show other signs of parasitism. You should always deworm animals with scores of 4 or 5. The challenge is what do with the animals that have FAMACHA© scores of 3.On the card, there is a question mark (?) next to category 3. You should consider deworming these animals if more than 10 percent of the flock has FAMACHA© scores of 4 or 5. Animals in poor body condition should be dewormed. If a sheep has "bottle jaw" (a soft swelling of liquid under the jaw), it should be dewormed. Fecal soiling (excessive) is another reason for deworming. It is usually recommended that lambs and pregnant or lactating ewes with FAMACHA© scores of 3 be dewormed.Frequency of FAMACHA© scoring depends upon environmental conditions (risk). FAMACHA© scoring should be done more frequently when the barber pole worm is most active (summer in temperate climates). Every two weeks is recommended. More frequent checking may be required in warmer, more humid climates. During spring and fall when temperatures are cooler, less frequent checking may be required, e.g., every 3 to 4 weeks. During the winter, the barber pole worm may not be active, depending upon climate. In tropical and sub-tropical climates, the need for FAMACHA© scoring is greater. It may be year-round and more frequent.Unless you are a veterinarian, you need to take an approved training in order to get a FAMACHA© card. Louisiana State University is the sole North American distributor of FAMACHA© cards. An in-person training is recommended, but there are online options for FAMACHA© certification. Because FAMACHA© scores are based on color, you should not attempt to make your own FAMACHA© card using a color printer or use your smart phone for scoring. In fact, it may be necessary to replace FAMACHA© cards every 2 to 3 years, due to color fading. When not in use, FAMACHA© cards should be stored in a dark place.Giving injections There are many reasons to give sheep injections and different ways to give injections. Most vaccines and other preparations are given subcutaneously (SQ) which means "under the skin." SQ injections are the easiest to give and should be given whenever possible. SQA subcutaneous injection is given in areas where the skin is loose. Behind the elbow -- the axilla or armpit -- is one of the most common places to give the injection. On the side of the neck or behind the shoulder is another location. Large volume subcutaneous injections, such as those used for treating pregnancy toxemia or milk fever, should be given over the ribs. To give a subcutaneous injection, you pull a handful of skin to make a "tent" and slide the needle into the base of the tent. Care must be taken to make sure you do not poke the needle out the other end of the tent. The plunger should be pulled out to make sure you are not in a blood vessel. If pressure is felt during the injection, do not keep pushing the plunger; you may be in the muscle. Some injections (e.g. LA-200) sting. It helps to massage the area after injection. IMSome drugs have to be injected deep into the muscle to give more rapid absorption. The preferred site of an intramuscular (IM) injection is the muscle mass of the neck. The hind leg should be avoided as an injection site, as it is high-priced cut of meat and the last place you want an abscess to form. When giving an IM injection, insert the needle quickly, straight into the muscle, but do not force it. Resistance could indicate that you have struck a bone. As with the subcutaneous injection, you should draw back the syringe to make sure you are not in a blood vessel. The solution should be injected slowly. IM injections can also be painful, so massage the area after you remove the needle. Massaging will also help deliver the solution into the tissues. IVLifesaving treatments often require intravenous (IV) injections, as they are the fastest route to administer a drug. An intravenous injection is given in the vein, usually the jugular. Finding the vein can be tricky. Only experienced individuals or veterinarians should attempt IV injections. It is important that all intravenous injections be given very slowly, as rapid injections of a medication into a vein can be lethal. IPSome hypothermic or weak lambs may require an intraperitoneal (or intra-abdominal) injection of glucose or dextrose. To give this live-saving injection, the lamb should be held by its forelegs with its hind legs hanging down. The lamb can also rest on its backside between your legs or be placed on its side. The needle should be injected one inch below the navel, one half inch to either side. It should be pointed towards the tail head. Make sure the solution goes into the abdomen and not under the skin. The solution should be injected slowly. IntramammaryIn sheep, antibiotics for mastitis are sometimes injected directly into the udder, via the teat canal. Intramammary injections are actually infusions that use a long neck of a tube as opposed to a needle. The teat is a very delicate structure, so care must be taken when inserting the tube into the teat. It goes without saying that clean needles should be used for injections. Vaccination needles should be changed frequently. A clean needle should always be used to draw solution out of a medication bottle. Used needles should be put in a suitable sharps container and disposed of according to local government regulations.MouthingThere are two reasons to mouth a sheep: estimate its age and determine the health and soundness of its mouth and teeth. Sheep have no top front teeth. They have a hard dental pad that their bottom incisors bite against. The dental pad and incisor teeth should line up. If the upper jaw is longer than the lower jaw, this is called an overbite or "parrot" mouth. When the lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw, it is called an underbite or "monkey" mouth. Jaw defects are inherited. Rams with jaw defects should no be used for breeding. You can estimate age according to when the temporary milk teeth have been replaced by permanent incisors. Lambs start with eight temporary incisor (milk) teeth. The center pair of permanent teeth start to erupt around 12 months of age, though this will vary. The second pair will be present when the sheep is about 24 months of age. At 36 months of age, there will be three pairs of permanent teeth. A sheep will have a complete set (full mouth) of permanent incisors (4 pairs) when it is about 4 years of age.As the sheep ages, the incisor teeth will wear, spread, and break off. Sheep with worn or lost teeth are called "broken mouth." They should be culled, unless they can be given special attention. A sheep with no permanent incisors is called a "gummer." It can still manage to eat if there is plenty of pasture available, but it will have a difficult time grazing short pasture. Teeth problems (age) are one of the primary reason sheep are culled.Sheep do not like you checking their teeth. Start by restraining the sheep in a race, straddling it, or tipping it on its rump. With the sheep's mouth closed and held in the normal resting position, you can determine the alignment of its teeth by running an index finger along the dental pad. To determine age, you will need to part the lips. While holding the sheep's head, place one hand around the muzzle and use your other hand to part its lips. For bigger sheep, you may need both hands.The big teeth in the back are molars. Sheep have 24 molars. Molar problems can be an unrecognized cause of weight loss. You can check the molars by feeling the jaws for abnormal thickening. You can feel through the cheeks for displaced or missing molar teeth. Swollen cheeks, drooling of saliva, and feed sticking out of the cheeks may be signs that there are problems with the molars.Replacing a prolapseA vaginal prolapse is when a ewe pushes her vagina out of her vulva. It usually happens in the month preceding lambing. A prolapsed vagina appears as a smooth, red mass that varies in size from a tennis ball to a melon.Vaginal prolapses need to be replaced quickly to prevent more serious problems. To do so, the ewe needs to be properly restrained. The prolapse should be washed with warm water and a mild antiseptic. Contamination, such as manure or straw, should be removed from it. The prolapse should be handled carefully. Before being replaced, it should be covered with lubricant. You should apply gentle pressure to push the prolapse back into the ewe. You can use the flat of your hand or your fist to push it in. The ewe may continue to strain during replacement. Wait until she stops straining to replace it.Once you have successfully replaced the prolapse, you need to keep it from coming back out. There are several options. You can use a commercial prolapse harness to keep the prolapse in. The harness applies pressure around the vulva to keep the vagina from coming back out. You need to fit the harness properly and make sure it does not cause any sores. You may be able to loosen it after awhile. A ewe can lamb past a harness, but it is best to remove it. Some people prefer to make their own harness using baling twine or rope.Another option is a bearing retainer or ewe spoon. It is a plastic device that is inserted into the vulva. It is important to clean and disinfect the spoon before inserting it. The ends of the spoon are usually tied to a clump of wool. If there is not wool or the wool is not long enough, it can be tied to the buckles of a prolapse harness. Some people use both a retainer and a harness to keep prolapses in. A ewe can lamb past a prolapse retainer, but ideally it should be removed.The third option is suturing, which may be required in more advanced cases. The lips of the vulva are sutured to prevent the vagina from coming out. The sutures are pulled tight so that only two fingers can pass through the opening. The stitches must be removed before lambing. Suturing should be done by a veterinarian, as the ewe should receive an epidural block before the procedure is performed.It may be necessary to give antibiotics to ewes that have prolapsed to prevent or treat bacterial infections. Pain killers may be prescribed by your veterinarian.TippingTipping is when you put a sheep on its rump. In this position, sheep struggle less and are generally easier to work with. To tip a sheep, hold the sheep in a standing position. For a right-handed person, place your left hand under its chin. With your left knee positioned behind the sheep's shoulder and your right leg touching the sheep's left side near its left hip, turn the sheep's nose away from you.You should feel the weight of the sheep lean against your legs. Put pressure on the hips so the sheep cannot pick its feet off the ground. Take a step back with your right leg. The hind end of the sheep should to go down. Continue to bring the head around until the sheep is sitting down with its back leaning against your legs. For heavier sheep, you can bend over the sheep and from underneath grab the two farthest legs to bring the sheep down.Tube feedingBeing able to feed young lambs with an esophageal feeding tube is an important skill for shepherds to master. Without tubing, many lambs will die or fail to thrive. Not only is tube feeding quicker than bottle feeding, but tube-fed lambs as less likely to become attached to humans and be reluctant to nurse their dams.There are numerous reasons to tube feed a lamb. Some lambs are too weak to nurse. Sometimes, a ewe will not let a lamb nurse. Sometimes, she does not have any milk for her lambs. It may be necessary to tube feed electrolytes to a lamb with severe diarrhea. You should not tube feed a lamb that cannot lift its head. Instead these lambs should be warmed first (if necessary) and given an intraperitoneal injection of glucose.To tube feed a lamb, you need a soft, flexible feeding tube and a catheter-tipped syringe. Feeding tubes are usually red rubber or clear plastic. The plastic ones are less flexible and easier to insert, while the red rubber tubes stay more flexible, especially in cold weather. Feeding tubes can vary in length and diameter. Syringes come in different sizes, too. A 60 ml (2 oz.) syringe is most commonly used. A 140-cc syringe will save time and colostrum.The first thing you should do is place the tube alongside the lamb's body to see how far the tube will need to be inserted to reach the last rib. You cannot pass the tube too far, but you can pass it not far enough. Hold the lamb between your legs to restrain it. Gently insert the tube in the lamb's mouth. Allow it to swallow as you advance the tube. Some lambs will chew on the tube. You should be able to see or feel the tube as it advances. Don't force the tube. The lamb may resist slightly, but it should resist too severely. If the lamb begins to cough, the tube may be in the trachea. If this is the case, remove the tube and start all over again.Once the tube is fully inserted, attach the syringe (filled with colostrum, milk, or milk replacer). Let the fluid trickle via gravity. Do not force the milk flow. The plunger of the syringe is not usually used unless very thick colostrum is fed. Wait until all the milk has flowed out of the entire length of the tube before removing it. Otherwise, you may accidently allow milk to get into the lamb's lungs. It helps to pinch the end of the tube while removing it. Be sure to disinfect feeding equipment immediately after use.

SOME KEY POINTS Record keeping starts with individual animal identification There are many methods to identify sheep and lambs; ear tags are most common. There are numerous advantages to electronic ID (also called RFID). Almost all sheep require individual and premise ID when they leave their farm of birth. Certain basic records should be kept to monitor individual and flock performance. Record keeping is an important aspect of sheep production. Performance record keeping helps to identify which lambs should be kept as replacements, which ewes should be kept or culled, and which rams sire the best lambs. The National Scrapie Eradication Programs requires producers to keep records on animal disposition. It is increasingly important to keep records pertaining to the use of animal health products (antibiotics, anthelmintics, etc.). Animal Identification Record keeping begins with individual animal identification. The ideal sheep identification is permanent, resistant to loss or tearing, easy to read from a distance, easy to apply, and gives all of the information about the animal from a glance. Unfortunately, it doesn’t exist. Choice of identification will depend upon personal preference, needs, cost, and retention rate in the animal. Ear tags There are many methods to identify sheep and lambs, with ear tags being the most common. Ear tags come in many different sizes, designs, and brands. There are brass, aluminum, and plastic tags; button tags, rotary tags, swivel tags, and looping tags; DNA tags, and RFID (electronic tags). Brass tags are ideal for tagging small or newborn lambs. They are light, so they will not pull down on the ear. However, the lamb must be caught in order to read its tag. Metal tags are the cheapest and easiest to apply, but they are more likely to be ripped out and cause a reaction in the ear. Swivel and looping tags work well for lambs and are easier to read than brass tags. Many producers like button tags. Temple tags have an open end to prevent ripping of the ear. However, you must punch a hole in the ear before inserting the tag. Allflex® and Duflex™ tags are two-piece, plastic tags that come in many different sizes, shapes, and colors. They are easier to read than other tag types. Retention is fairly good, but declines with larger tag sizes. Most companies make smaller tags for sheep and lambs. Scrapie identification The U.S. Department of Agriculture requires almost all sheep and lambs to have premise identification ear tags before leaving their farm of origin (premise). The ear tags carry the owner's premise identification number on one side and a sequential number on the other side, which can be used for individual record-keeping. In addition to applying tags, producers are required to keep records for five years after the animals have been sold. To get a premise identification number and order free metal ear tags, producers should call toll-free 1 (866) 873-2824. Free plastic ear tags are no longer available, except to producer requesting tags for the fist time. Producers participating in the Voluntary Scrapie Flock certification program are required to identify all sheep over 1 year of age with tamper-proof ear tags, tattoos, or microchips. National Animal ID A national systems for animal identification is still being developed. Its purpose is to trace movements of animals, in the event of a disease outbreak or act of bioterrorism. Most other developed countries have similar systems in place. For sheep, the form of identification will probably be an ear tag that is cross-linked with the scrapie eradication program. In other countries, electronic ID is required. Other methods of identification Other methods of sheep identification include DNA tags, tattoos, ear notches, neck chains, and electronic ID. DNA tags remove ear tissue during installation and automatically store it in a sealed, number tube, for later submission to a lab. The DNA tags are ideal for scrapie genotyping and are more economical than drawing blood for genotyping. Tattoos Tattoos are the best permanent form of identification. They also do not harm the animal's appearance or reduce its value in any way. The numbers and letters are made of needles that place small holes in the ears in their shape and the ink is applied to the holes so that the number is readable. The biggest disadvantage to tattooing is that tattoos are difficult to read from a distance. It is usually necessary to catch the animal to determine its number. Ear notching An ear notch is a V-shaped notch placed somewhere in the ear. While ear notching can be a complete animal identification system, as is done with swine, ear notching in sheep is more commonly used for simple differentiation. For example, ear notching can be used to denote birth type and/or week of birth. Ear notches can be used to mark ewes for culling. Neck chains or straps Neck chains or straps are the least used form of identification in sheep. They are most common with dairy animals. Neck chains have a numbered tag that corresponds to that animal's identification number. The chain most be positioned around the animals neck tight enough not to fall off, but loose enough not to allow for easy breathing and growth of young animals. Growing animals need to be inspected frequently. Chains can be caught on protrusions that may choke an animal. They are difficult to see when animals are in a group. They are not a form of permanent identification since they can be easily removed. Electronic ID The number of animals being identified with radio frequency identification (RFID) technology is rapidly growing and may soon be required. Electronic ear tags are the most common form of electronic ID. A microchip and coiled copper antenna is encapsulated in a standard plastic ear tag. A rumen bolus is administered using a balling gun and resides in the reticulum of the animal. It is easily removed by the packer and can be recycled. Microchips are a form of identification that involves the implanting of an electronic chip with a miniature radio transponder and antenna, under the skin of an animal. The most common implant site is between the shoulder blades or near the base of the ear. The transponder can also come in a form that can be ingested by the animal. Ear tagging Ear tags should be placed between the middle and lower cartilage ribs in the ear and far enough out on the ear to allow for later wool growth. In addition to identifying an individual animal, ear tags can contain other useful information about the animal. The first number on an ear tag can be used to denote the animal's birth year. Different colored tags can be used for different birth years, breed types, sires, or owners. The name or registration prefix of the producer or farm can be written or imprinted on the tag. Ear tags can be inserted in different ears (right or left) to denote birth type, sex of the lamb, breed type, or sire. Temporary ID Sometimes, temporary identification is desirable in a sheep flock. Paint branding; marking crayons, sticks, and rattles; and spray markers can all be used to identify sheep and lambs for periods of several weeks to several months. Marks from marking crayons will usually last for several weeks, whereas paint brands tend to last for many months. Some producers will paint brand or spray paint a ewe's number on her back or side for easy identification. The same number can be put on the lambs' backs so that ewe-lamb pairs can easily be identified. Ordinary spray paint sheep never be applied to sheep, especially wooled sheep. Paint brands allow for quick identification. They are usually used in conjunction with another type of identification. Paint branding is useful for sales and exhibition because it is temporary identification that is easily visible and easy to identify animals in a sale. Paint branding is also useful when offspring need to be identified with their parents. Many producers paint brand ewes and lambs before they leave the jug. Paint numbers are usually applied on the left side for consistency in reading. When paint branding wool-producing sheep, only fluids which have been made specifically for sheep should be applied (e.g. Etro-Mark®). Heavy applications should be avoided because excess paint makes it difficult to scour the wool. Ideally, wool producers should avoid the use of paint brands on their sheep. Paint sticks, Chalks, and Sprays have many uses for temporarily marking animals and come in many colors so you can use them at the same time for different IDs. Sheep are commonly marked with these on the back or head. They are commonly used to mark pregnant and open ewes during pregnancy checks, as well as to mark animals that need treated or have been treated or need sorted off from a group and about anything else you can think of. Keeping records Certain basic records should be kept to monitor flock performance. These include sire and dam, lambing date, sex of lambs, and ID of lambs. You may also want to record comments about lambing ease, the ewe's mothering ability, and the vigor of the lambs. Many producers record birth weights of lambs. Lambs should be weighed at weaning to determine weaning weights and litter weaning weights for ewes. 120-day weights give an indication of post-weaning growth. Other records may be kept according to the goals of the individual shepherd. To be used properly in selection, all records need to be adjusted to a common basis. Growth measures such as weaning weight need to be adjusted for sex of lamb, type of birth and rearing, age of lamb, and age of dam. Contemporary groups When making selection decisions based on performance records, it is important to only compare animals from the same contemporary group. A contemporary group is a group of similarly-aged animals that have been raised in the same environment under exactly the same management. If an adjustment for sex is made, males and females managed the same can be included in the same contemporary group. Computerized record keeping While spreadsheets (e.g. Excel) and databases (e.g. Access) can be used to record, sort, and analyze performance data, there are several commercial software packages and apps that can be used to keep production records. Many are specific to sheep enterprises and offer free demo versions of their software. Increasingly, apps are being developed for flock record keeping. National Sheep Improvement Program (NSIP) The National Sheep Improvement Program was developed to assist producers in compiling records into a usable form for selection decisions. Sophisticated mainframe computer programs are used to generate estimates of genetic value. The actual values are called Expected Breeding Values or EBVs. An EBV is an estimate of an animal's genetic merit (compared to the breed average) for a particular trait. EBVs are calculated for various growth, muscle, reproductive, wool, and fitness traits. An offspring receives half of an EBV from each of its parents. EBVs can be compared across flocks. In fact, they are the only way to accurate compare animals from different flocks. Producers marketing breeding stock benefit the most from NSIP. Any producer can submit data to NSIP. Though different breeds may emphasize different traits, NSIP is suitable for any breed of sheep. NSIP is more accurate than on-farm selection and central performance tests because it includes data from relatives and correlated traits. . In 2010, NSIP entered into a partnership with Australia's LambPlan. Data is now processed by LambPlan. This partnership ensures the long term viability of NSIP.

SOME KEY POINTS To make accurate comparisons, all records need to be adjusted to a common basis. Weaning weights should to be adjusted for age, sex, type of birth and rearing, and age of dam. Only lambs in the same contemporary group should be compared. Adjustment factors can be used across breeds, unless breed-specific adjustment factors are available. Adjusted weaning weights can be calculated by hand (using simple math) or with a computer. To be used properly in selection, all records need to be adjusted to a common basis. Growth measures such as weaning weight need to be adjusted for age (at weighing), sex of lamb, type of birth/rearing, and age of dam. If such adjustments are not made, selection will favor single-born lambs from mature ewes (3 to 6 years), which aren't necessarily genetically superior to their flockmates. The sex adjustment is not necessary if comparison is only among same sex groups. Once adjusted weaning weights have been calculated, it is important to only compare lambs in the same contemporary group. A contemporary group is one in which animals are of similar age and have been fed and managed the same. For example, lambs born in January would not be in the same contemporary group as lambs born in April. If a lamb's dam was separated for preferential feeding or grazing, it would not be in the same contemporary group as lambs whose dams were not separated. Lambs that were dewormed would not be in the same contemporary group as those which were not, even if all other feeding and management was the same. Calculating Age-Corrected Weaning Weights The first step is to correct weaning weights to a common day of age. Weaning age varies by production system. For lambs that are weaned at less than 75 days of age, 60-day weaning weights should be calculated. For lambs weaned between 75 and 100 days of age, 90-day weaning weights are usually calculated. 120 day weaning weights are common for lambs raised in more extensive production systems, such as those common to the range. Weaning weights do not have to coincide with physical weaning, though they mostly do. To calculate an age-corrected weaning weight, first you need to determine the lamb's pre-weaning average daily gain (ADG). Pre-weaning ADG Pre-weaning ADG = (weaning weight - birth weight) ÷ weaning age Pre-weaning ADG is used to predict the weight of the lamb at the common weaning age of 60, 90, or 120 days. Age-corrected weaning weight Age-corrected weaning weight = (pre-weaning ADG x weaning age) + birth weight If birth weights are not known, pre-weaning weight per day of age (WDA) can be used instead of pre-weaning ADG. Pre-weaning WDA = weaning weight ÷ weaning age Age-corrected weaning weight = WDA x weaning age An alternative would be to used breed average birth weights. An age-corrected weaning weight is what the lamb would have been expected to weigh if it had been weighed at 60, 90, or 120 days. Adjusted weaning weights Once you have determined the age-corrected weaning weight, you need to adjust it for the fixed environmental factors which affect weaning weights. These include the sex of the lamb, the age of its dam, and type of birth and rearing (singe, twin, or triplet). Adjusted weaning weight = age-corrected weight x age of dam adjustment factor x sex adjustment factor x type of birth and rearing adjustment factor. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS The following table gives adjustment factors for age of dam, sex of lamb, and type of birth. The adjustment factors are generic and can be used across breeds or crossbreeds. Here are some examples of adjusted weaning weight calculations. Example #1 Determine the 60-day adjusted weaning weight of a ewe lamb with a birth weight of 8 lbs. and a weaning weight of 68 lbs. at 70 days of age. She was born and raised as a twin. Her dam is 2 years old. Pre-weaning ADG = (68 - 8) ÷ 70 = 0.857 lbs./day Age-corrected weaning weight = (0.857 x 60 d) + 8 = 59.4 lbs Adjustment factor for age of dam (2) is 1.08 Adjustment factor for sex (ewe) is 1.00 Adjustment factor for a lamb born and raised as a twin (2-2) is 1.21 Adjusted 60-day weaning weight = 59.4 x 1.08 x 1.00 x 1.21 = 77.6 lbs. Example #2 Determine the 60-day adjusted weaning weight of a ewe lamb with a birth weight of 12 lbs. and a weaning weight of 85 lbs. at 75 days of age. She was born and raised as a single. Her dam is 5 years old. Pre-weaning ADG = (85 - 12) ÷ 75 = 0.973 lbs./day Age Corrected weaning weight = (0.973 x 60 d) + 12 = 70.4 lbs. Adjustment factor for age of dam (5) is 1.00 Adjustment factor for sex (ewe) is 1.00 Adjustment factor for born and raised as single (1-1) is 1.00 Adjusted 60-day weaning weight = 70.4 x 1.00 = 70.4 lbs. If you had only looked at actual weaning weights, you would have favored the second ewe lamb in your selection program. However, the first ewe lamb has superior performance and is the genetically superior choice. If data is available, adjustment factors can be determined for individual breeds. The following table gives the multiplicative adjustment factors for Katahdin sheep. Calculate the 90-day adjusted weaning weight of a Katahdin ram lamb with a birth weight of 10 lbs. and a weaning weight of 90 lbs. at 100 days of age. The lamb was born and raised as a triplet out of a 10 year old ewe. Example #3 Pre-weaning ADG = (90 - 10) ÷ 100 = 0.80 lbs./day Age Corrected weaning weight = (0.80 x 90 d) + 10 = 82.0 lbs. Adjustment factor for sex, age of dam, and type of birth/rearing is 1.31 Adjusted 90-day weaning weight = 82.0 x 1.31 = 107.4